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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title">Polymer science</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Properties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Polymer_architecture" title="Polymer architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="Tacticity" title="Tacticity">Tacticity</a></li>
<li><a href="Polymer#Polymer_morphology" title="Polymer">Morphology</a></li>
<li><a href="Polymer_degradation" title="Polymer degradation">Degradation</a></li>
<li><a href="Polymer#Phase_behavior" title="Polymer">Phase behavior</a>
<ul><li><a href="Mark%E2%80%93Houwink_equation" title="Mark–Houwink equation">Mark–Houwink theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Upper_critical_solution_temperature" title="Upper critical solution temperature">UCST</a></li>
<li><a href="Lower_critical_solution_temperature" title="Lower critical solution temperature">LCST</a></li>
<li><a href="Flory%E2%80%93Huggins_solution_theory" title="Flory–Huggins solution theory">Flory–Huggins solution theory</a></li>
<li><a href="Coil%E2%80%93globule_transition" title="Coil–globule transition">Coil–globule transition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Polymerization" title="Polymerization">Synthesis</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<dl><dt>Chain polymerization</dt>
<dd><a href="Radical_polymerization" title="Radical polymerization">Radical polymerization</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Reversible_deactivation_radical_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Reversible deactivation radical polymerization">RDRP</a>]
<dl><dd><a href="ATRP_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="ATRP (chemistry)">ATRP</a></dd>
<dd><a href="RAFT" class="mw-redirect" title="RAFT">RAFT</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Nitroxide-mediated_radical_polymerization" title="Nitroxide-mediated radical polymerization">Nitroxide-mediated radical polymerization</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>
<dl><dt><a href="Step_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Step polymerization">Step polymerization</a></dt>
<dd><a href="Condensation_polymer" title="Condensation polymer">Condensation polymerization</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Addition_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Addition polymerization">Addition polymerization</a></dd></dl></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Polymer_classes_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Polymer classes (disambiguation)">Classification</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<dl><dt>Functional type</dt>
<dd><a href="Polyolefin" title="Polyolefin">Polyolefin</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Polyethylene" title="Polyethylene">Polyethylene</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">Polypropylene</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polyisobutylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyisobutylene">Polyisobutylene</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">Polyurethane</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polyester" title="Polyester">Polyester</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polycarbonate" title="Polycarbonate">Polycarbonate</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Vinyl_polymer" title="Vinyl polymer">Vinyl polymers</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polyvinyl_alcohol" title="Polyvinyl alcohol">PVA</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polyvinyl_acetate" title="Polyvinyl acetate">PVAc</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">Polystyrene</a></dd></dl></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Structure</dt>
<dd><a href="Homopolymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Homopolymer">Homopolymer</a></dd>
<dd></dd>
<dd><a href="Gels" class="mw-redirect" title="Gels">Gels</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Hydrogels" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogels">Hydrogels</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Self-healing_hydrogels" title="Self-healing hydrogels">Self-healing hydrogels</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></div></div></td>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Polymer_characterization" title="Polymer characterization">Characterization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Gel_permeation_chromatography" title="Gel permeation chromatography">GPC</a></li>
<li><a href="Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">FTIR</a></li>
<li><a href="X-ray_crystallography" title="X-ray crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a></li>
<li><a href="Differential_scanning_calorimetry" title="Differential scanning calorimetry">DSC</a></li>
<li><a href="NMR_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR spectroscopy">NMR</a></li>
<li><a href="Thermogravimetric_analysis" title="Thermogravimetric analysis">TGA</a></li>
<li><a href="Dynamic_mechanical_analysis" title="Dynamic mechanical analysis">DMA</a></li>
<li><a href="Rheology" title="Rheology">Rheology</a>
<ul><li><a href="Rheometer" title="Rheometer">Rheometry</a></li>
<li><a href="Viscometer" title="Viscometer">Viscometry</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Scientists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="Paul_Flory" title="Paul Flory">Flory</a></li>
<li><a href="Alan_J._Heeger" title="Alan J. Heeger">Heeger</a></li>
<li><a href="Alan_MacDiarmid" title="Alan MacDiarmid">MacDiarmid</a></li>
<li><a href="Hideki_Shirakawa" title="Hideki Shirakawa">Shirakawa</a></li>
<li><a href="Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Natta</a></li>
<li><a href="Sam_Edwards_(physicist)" title="Sam Edwards (physicist)"> Edwards</a></li>
<li><a href="Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></li>
<li><a href="Karl_Ziegler" title="Karl Ziegler">Ziegler</a></li>
<li><a href="Hermann_Staudinger" title="Hermann Staudinger">Staudinger</a></li>
<li><a href="Charles_Goodyear" title="Charles Goodyear">Goodyear</a></li>
<li><a href="Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Baekeland</a></li>
<li><a href="Nathaniel_Hayward" title="Nathaniel Hayward">Hayward</a></li>
<li><a href="Henri_Braconnot" title="Henri Braconnot">Braconnot</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<dl><dt>Industrial production</dt>
<dd><a href="Plastics_extrusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics extrusion">Extrusion</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Blow_molding" title="Blow molding">Blow molding</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Extrusion_coating" title="Extrusion coating">Applied coatings</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="Industrial_coating" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial coating">Protective Coatings</a></dd>
<dd><a href="3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></dd>
<dt><a href="Plastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastics">Consumer products</a></dt>
<dd><a href="Tire" title="Tire">Tires</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Whitewall_tires" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitewall tires">Whitewalls</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="Cookware_and_bakeware" title="Cookware and bakeware">Cookware and bakeware</a>
<dl><dd><a href="Bakelite" title="Bakelite">Bakelite</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Food Container</a></dd></dl></dd>
<dd><a href="Vinyl_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinyl record">Vinyl record</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Kevlar" title="Kevlar">Kevlar</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Plastic_bottle" title="Plastic bottle">Plastic bottle</a></dd>
<dd><a href="Plastic_bag" title="Plastic bag">Plastic bag</a></dd></dl></div></div></td>
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<p>In <a href="Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">polymer chemistry</a>, a <b>copolymer</b> is a <a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">polymer</a> derived from more than one species of <a href="Monomer" title="Monomer">monomer</a>. The <a href="Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> of monomers into copolymers is called <b>copolymerization</b>. Copolymers obtained from the copolymerization of two monomer species are sometimes called <i>bipolymers</i>. Those obtained from three and four monomers are called <i><b>terpolymers</b></i> and <i>quaterpolymers</i>, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-goldbook1996_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldbook1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copolymers can be characterized by a variety of techniques such as <a href="Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR spectroscopy</a> and <a href="Size-exclusion_chromatography" title="Size-exclusion chromatography">size-exclusion chromatography</a> to determine the molecular size, weight, properties, and composition of the material.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Commercial copolymers include <a href="Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> (ABS), <a href="Styrene/butadiene_co-polymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Styrene/butadiene co-polymer">styrene/butadiene co-polymer</a> (SBR), <a href="Nitrile_rubber" title="Nitrile rubber">nitrile rubber</a>, <a href="Styrene-acrylonitrile" class="mw-redirect" title="Styrene-acrylonitrile">styrene-acrylonitrile</a>, styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS) and <a href="Ethylene-vinyl_acetate" title="Ethylene-vinyl acetate">ethylene-vinyl acetate</a>, all of which are formed by <a href="Chain-growth_polymerization" title="Chain-growth polymerization">chain-growth polymerization</a>. Another production mechanism is <a href="Step-growth_polymerization" title="Step-growth polymerization">step-growth polymerization</a>, which is used to produce the nylon-12/6/66 copolymer<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of <a href="Nylon_12" title="Nylon 12">nylon 12</a>, <a href="Nylon_6" title="Nylon 6">nylon 6</a> and <a href="Nylon_66" title="Nylon 66">nylon 66</a>, as well as the <a href="Copolyester" title="Copolyester">copolyester</a> family. Copolymers can be used to develop commercial goods or drug delivery vehicles.
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<div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div>
<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">
<p><b>copolymer</b>: A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.P04735">polymer</a> derived from more than one species of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M04017">monomer</a>. (See Gold Book entry for note.)
<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_Book_"copolymer"_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_Book_"copolymer"-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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</blockquote>
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<p>Since a copolymer consists of at least two types of constituent units (also <a href="Structural_unit" title="Structural unit">structural units</a>), copolymers can be classified based on how these units are arranged along the <a href="Catenation" title="Catenation">chain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenkins_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenkins-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Linear copolymers</i> consist of a single <a href="Backbone_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Backbone chain">main chain</a> and include <a href="Alternating_copolymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternating copolymer">alternating copolymers</a>, <a href="Statistical_copolymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical copolymer">statistical copolymers</a>, and <a href="Block_copolymer" class="mw-redirect" title="Block copolymer">block copolymers</a>. <i><a href="Branching_(polymer_chemistry)" title="Branching (polymer chemistry)">Branched</a> copolymers</i> consist of a single main chain with one or more polymeric <a href="Side_chain" title="Side chain">side chains</a>, and can be <a href="Graft_polymer" title="Graft polymer">grafted</a>, star shaped, or have other architectures.
</p>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reactivity_ratios">Reactivity ratios</h2></div>
<p>The <i>reactivity ratio</i> of a growing copolymer chain terminating in a given monomer is the ratio of the <a href="Reaction_rate_constant" title="Reaction rate constant">reaction rate constant</a> for addition of the same monomer and the rate constant for addition of the other monomer. That is, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r_{1}={\frac {k_{11}}{k_{12}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
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<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>11</mn>
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<msub>
<mi>k</mi>
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<mn>12</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r_{1}={\frac {k_{11}}{k_{12}}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./16e05ebb8e21c25daa1e7b95f44d0aa119905e92.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:9.125ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r_{1}={\frac {k_{11}}{k_{12}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> and <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r_{2}={\frac {k_{22}}{k_{21}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>22</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>21</mn>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r_{2}={\frac {k_{22}}{k_{21}}}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./e4fa1735a7912126f36b3e5627935817e07f3f21.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:9.125ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r_{2}={\frac {k_{22}}{k_{21}}}}" loading="lazy"></span>, where for example <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k_{12}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>k</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>12</mn>
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</msub>
</mstyle>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k_{12}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./6a88176fbc20f6f397605e80685926e9210677da.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.087ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k_{12}}" loading="lazy"></span> is the rate constant for propagation of a polymer chain ending in monomer 1 (or A) by addition of monomer 2 (or B).<sup id="cite_ref-Cowie_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowie-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The composition and structural type of the copolymer depend on these reactivity ratios r<sub>1</sub> and r<sub>2</sub> according to the <a href="Mayo%E2%80%93Lewis_equation" title="Mayo–Lewis equation">Mayo–Lewis equation</a>, also called the <b>copolymerization equation</b> or <b>copolymer equation</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cowie_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowie-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the relative instantaneous rates of incorporation of the two monomers.
</p><p><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]}{\mathrm {d} \left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]}}={\frac {\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]\left(r_{1}\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]+\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\right)}{\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\left(\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]+r_{2}\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\right)}}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]}{\mathrm {d} \left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]}}={\frac {\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]\left(r_{1}\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]+\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\right)}{\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\left(\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]+r_{2}\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\right)}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./5ec80e22c6900efbb20038b39c74953baab62505.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:31.893ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]}{\mathrm {d} \left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]}}={\frac {\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]\left(r_{1}\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]+\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\right)}{\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\left(\left[\mathrm {M} _{1}\right]+r_{2}\left[\mathrm {M} _{2}\right]\right)}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linear_copolymers">Linear copolymers</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Block_copolymers">Block copolymers</h3></div>
<p>Block copolymers comprise two or more <a href="Polymer#Monomers_and_repeat_units" title="Polymer">homopolymer</a> subunits linked by covalent bonds. The union of the homopolymer subunits may require an intermediate non-repeating subunit, known as a <b>junction block</b>. <b>Diblock copolymers</b> have two distinct blocks; <b>triblock copolymers</b> have three. Technically, a block is a portion of a macromolecule, comprising many units, that has at least one feature which is not present in the adjacent portions.<sup id="cite_ref-goldbook1996_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goldbook1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A possible sequence of repeat units A and B in a triblock copolymer might be ~A-A-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B-B-B-A-A-A-A-A~.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;">
<div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div>
<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">
<p><b>block copolymer</b>: A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.C01335">copolymer</a> that is a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.B00685">block polymer</a>. In the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.C01281">constituent</a> macromolecules of a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.B00682">block</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.C01335">copolymer</a>, adjacent blocks are constitutionally different, i.e. adjacent blocks comprise <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.C01288">constitutional unit</a> derived from different species of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M04017">monomer</a> or from the same species of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M04017">monomer</a> but with a different composition or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.ST06775">sequence</a> distribution of constitutional units.
<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_Book_"block_copolymer"_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_Book_"block_copolymer"-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Block copolymers are made up of blocks of different <a href="Polymerized" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymerized">polymerized</a> <a href="Monomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Monomers">monomers</a>. For example, polystyrene-b-poly(methyl methacrylate) or PS-b-PMMA (where b = block) is usually made by first polymerizing <a href="Styrene" title="Styrene">styrene</a>, and then subsequently polymerizing <a href="Methyl_methacrylate" title="Methyl methacrylate">methyl methacrylate</a> (MMA) from the reactive end of the polystyrene chains. This polymer is a "diblock copolymer" because it contains two different chemical blocks. Triblocks, tetrablocks, multiblocks, etc. can also be made. Diblock copolymers are made using <a href="Living_polymerization" title="Living polymerization">living polymerization</a> techniques, such as atom transfer free radical polymerization (<a href="ATRP_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="ATRP (chemistry)">ATRP</a>), reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (<a href="RAFT_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="RAFT (chemistry)">RAFT</a>), <a href="Ring-opening_metathesis_polymerization" title="Ring-opening metathesis polymerization">ring-opening metathesis polymerization</a> (ROMP), and living cationic or living anionic <a href="Living_polymerization" title="Living polymerization">polymerizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An emerging technique is <a href="Chain_shuttling_polymerization" title="Chain shuttling polymerization">chain shuttling polymerization</a>.
</p><p>The synthesis of block copolymers requires that both reactivity ratios are much larger than unity (r<sub>1</sub> >> 1, r<sub>2</sub> >> 1) under the reaction conditions, so that the terminal monomer unit of a growing chain tends to add a similar unit most of the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Fried_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fried-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The "<b>blockiness</b>" of a copolymer is a measure of the adjacency of comonomers vs their statistical distribution. Many or even most synthetic polymers are in fact copolymers, containing about 1-20% of a minority monomer. In such cases, blockiness is undesirable.<sup id="cite_ref-Chum_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chum-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <i>block index</i> has been proposed as a quantitative measure of blockiness or deviation from random monomer composition.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternating_copolymers">Alternating copolymers</h3></div>
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;">
<div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div>
<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">
<p><b>alternating copolymer</b>: A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.C01335">copolymer</a> consisting of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M03667">macromolecule</a> comprising two species of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M04018">monomeric unit</a> in alternating <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.ST06775">sequence</a>. (See Gold Book entry for note.)
<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_Book_"alternating_copolymer"_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_Book_"alternating_copolymer"-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>An alternating copolymer has regular alternating A and B units, and is often described by the formula: -A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-, or -(-A-B-)<sub>n</sub>-. The molar ratio of each monomer in the polymer is normally close to one, which happens when the reactivity ratios r<sub>1</sub> and r<sub>2</sub> are close to zero, as can be seen from the Mayo–Lewis equation. For example, in the free-radical copolymerization of <a href="Styrene_maleic_anhydride" title="Styrene maleic anhydride">styrene maleic anhydride</a> copolymer, r<sub>1</sub> = 0.097 and r<sub>2</sub> = 0.001,<sup id="cite_ref-Fried_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fried-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that most chains ending in styrene add a maleic anhydride unit, and almost all chains ending in maleic anhydride add a styrene unit. This leads to a predominantly alternating structure.
</p><p>A step-growth copolymer -(-A-A-B-B-)<sub>n</sub>- formed by the <a href="Condensation_reaction" title="Condensation reaction">condensation</a> of two <a href="Bifunctional" class="mw-redirect" title="Bifunctional">bifunctional</a> monomers A–A and B–B is in principle a perfectly alternating copolymer of these two monomers, but is usually considered as a <a href="Polymer#Monomers_and_repeat_units" title="Polymer">homopolymer</a> of the dimeric repeat unit A-A-B-B.<sup id="cite_ref-Cowie_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowie-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is <a href="Nylon_66" title="Nylon 66">nylon 66</a> with repeat unit -OC-( CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>-CO-NH-(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>6</sub>-NH-, formed from a <a href="Dicarboxylic_acid" title="Dicarboxylic acid">dicarboxylic acid</a> monomer and a <a href="Diamine" title="Diamine">diamine</a> monomer.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periodic_copolymers">Periodic copolymers</h3></div>
<p>Periodic copolymers have units arranged in a repeating sequence. For two monomers A and B, for example, they might form the repeated pattern (A-B-A-B-B-A-A-A-A-B-B-B)<sub>n</sub>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Statistical_copolymers">Statistical copolymers</h3></div>
<div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:35%; ;">
<div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div>
<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">
<p><b>statistical copolymer</b>: A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.C01335">copolymer</a> consisting of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M03667">macromolecule</a> in which the sequential distribution of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1351/goldbook.M04018">monomeric unit</a> obeys known statistical laws. (See Gold Book entry for note.)
<sup id="cite_ref-Gold_Book_"statistical_copolymer"_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gold_Book_"statistical_copolymer"-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>In statistical copolymers the sequence of monomer residues follows a statistical rule. If the probability of finding a given type monomer residue at a particular point in the chain is equal to the mole fraction of that monomer residue in the chain, then the polymer may be referred to as a truly <b>random copolymer</b><sup id="cite_ref-PC14_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC14-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (structure 3).
</p><p>Statistical copolymers are dictated by the reaction kinetics of the two chemically distinct monomer reactants, and are commonly referred to interchangeably as "random" in the polymer literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanda_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanda-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with other types of copolymers, random copolymers can have interesting and commercially desirable properties that blend those of the individual homopolymers. Examples of commercially relevant random copolymers include <a href="Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubbers</a> made from styrene-butadiene copolymers and resins from styrene-acrylic or <a href="Methacrylic_acid" title="Methacrylic acid">methacrylic acid</a> derivatives.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Copolymerization is particularly useful in tuning the <a href="Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> temperature, which is important in the operating conditions of polymers; it is assumed that each monomer occupies the same amount of free volume whether it is in a copolymer or homopolymer, so the <a href="Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">glass transition</a> temperature (T<sub>g</sub>) falls between the values for each homopolymer and is dictated by the mole or mass fraction of each component.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanda_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanda-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>A number of parameters are relevant in the composition of the polymer product; namely, one must consider the reactivity ratio of each component. Reactivity ratios describe whether the monomer reacts preferentially with a segment of the same type or of the other type. For example, a reactivity ratio that is less than one for component 1 indicates that this component reacts with the other type of monomer more readily. Given this information, which is available for a multitude of monomer combinations in the "Wiley Database of Polymer Properties",<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Mayo-Lewis_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayo-Lewis equation">Mayo-Lewis equation</a> can be used to predict the composition of the polymer product for all initial mole fractions of monomer. This equation is derived using the <a href="Markov_model" title="Markov model">Markov model</a>, which only considers the last segment added as affecting the kinetics of the next addition; the Penultimate Model considers the second-to-last segment as well, but is more complicated than is required for most systems.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When both reactivity ratios are less than one, there is an azeotropic point in the Mayo-Lewis plot. At this point, the mole fraction of monomer equals the composition of the component in the polymer.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanda_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanda-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>There are several ways to synthesize random copolymers. The most common synthesis method is <a href="Free_radical_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical polymerization">free radical polymerization</a>; this is especially useful when the desired properties rely on the composition of the copolymer rather than the molecular weight, since free radical polymerization produces relatively disperse polymer chains. Free radical polymerization is less expensive than other methods, and produces high-molecular weight polymer quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several methods offer better control over <a href="Dispersity" title="Dispersity">dispersity</a>. <a href="Anionic_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anionic polymerization">Anionic polymerization</a> can be used to create random copolymers, but with several caveats: if <a href="Carbanion" title="Carbanion">carbanions</a> of the two components do not have the same stability, only one of the species will add to the other. Additionally, anionic polymerization is expensive and requires very clean reaction conditions, and is therefore difficult to implement on a large scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanda_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanda-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Less disperse random copolymers are also synthesized by ″living″ <a href="Controlled_radical_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled radical polymerization">controlled radical polymerization</a> methods, such as <a href="Atom-transfer_radical-polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom-transfer radical-polymerization">atom-transfer radical-polymerization</a> (ATRP), <a href="Nitroxide_mediated_radical_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitroxide mediated radical polymerization">nitroxide mediated radical polymerization</a> (NMP), or <a href="Reversible_addition%E2%88%92fragmentation_chain-transfer_polymerization" title="Reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization">reversible addition−fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization</a> (RAFT). These methods are favored over anionic polymerization because they can be performed in conditions similar to free radical polymerization. The reactions require longer experimentation periods than free radical polymerization, but still achieve reasonable reaction rates.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stereoblock_copolymers">Stereoblock copolymers</h3></div>
<p>In stereoblock copolymers the blocks or units differ only in the <a href="Tacticity" title="Tacticity">tacticity</a> of the monomers.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gradient_copolymers">Gradient copolymers</h3></div>
<p>In gradient copolymers the monomer composition changes gradually along the chain.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branched_copolymers">Branched copolymers</h2></div>
<p>There are a variety of architectures possible for nonlinear copolymers. Beyond grafted and star polymers discussed below, other common types of branched copolymers include <b>brush copolymers</b> and <b>comb copolymers</b>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graft_copolymers">Graft copolymers</h3></div>
<p><a href="Graft_polymer" title="Graft polymer">Graft copolymers</a> are a special type of branched copolymer wherein the side chains are structurally distinct from the main chain. Typically, the main chain is formed from one type of monomer (A) and branches are formed from another monomer (B), or the side-chains have constitutional or configurational features that differ from those in the main chain.<sup id="cite_ref-Jenkins_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jenkins-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The individual chains of a graft copolymer may be homopolymers or copolymers. Note that different copolymer sequencing is sufficient to define a structural difference, thus an A-B diblock copolymer with A-B alternating copolymer side chains is properly called a graft copolymer.
</p><p>For example, <a href="Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> chains may be grafted onto <a href="Polybutadiene" title="Polybutadiene">polybutadiene</a>, a <a href="Synthetic_rubber" title="Synthetic rubber">synthetic rubber</a> which retains one reactive C=C <a href="Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bond</a> per <a href="Repeat_unit" title="Repeat unit">repeat unit</a>. The polybutadiene is dissolved in styrene, which is then subjected to <a href="Free-radical_polymerization" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-radical polymerization">free-radical polymerization</a>. The growing chains can add across the double bonds of rubber molecules forming polystyrene branches. The graft copolymer is formed in a mixture with ungrafted polystyrene chains and rubber molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>As with block copolymers, the quasi-<a href="Composite_material" title="Composite material">composite</a> product has properties of both "components." In the example cited, the rubbery chains absorb energy when the substance is hit, so it is much less brittle than ordinary polystyrene. The product is called <a href="Polystyrene#Co-polymers" title="Polystyrene">high-impact polystyrene</a>, or HIPS.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Star_copolymers">Star copolymers</h3></div>
<p><a href="Star-shaped_polymer" title="Star-shaped polymer">Star copolymers</a> have several polymer chains connected to a central core.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microphase_separation">Microphase separation</h2></div>
<p>Block copolymers can "microphase separate" to form periodic <a href="Nanostructures" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanostructures">nanostructures</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer. The polymer is known as <a href="Kraton_(polymer)" title="Kraton (polymer)">Kraton</a> and is used for shoe soles and <a href="Adhesive" title="Adhesive">adhesives</a>. Owing to the microfine structure, transmission electron microscope or <a href="Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">TEM</a> was used to examine the structure. The butadiene matrix was stained with <a href="Osmium_tetroxide" title="Osmium tetroxide">osmium tetroxide</a> to provide contrast in the image. The material was made by <a href="Living_polymerization" title="Living polymerization">living polymerization</a> so that the blocks are almost <a href="Monodisperse" class="mw-redirect" title="Monodisperse">monodisperse</a> to create a regular microstructure. The <a href="Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> of the polystyrene blocks in the main picture is 102,000; the inset picture has a molecular weight of 91,000, producing slightly smaller domains.
</p>
<p>Microphase separation is a situation similar to that of <a href="Oil" title="Oil">oil</a> and <a href="Water" title="Water">water</a>. Oil and water are immiscible (i.e., they can phase separate). Due to the incompatibility between the blocks, block copolymers undergo a similar phase separation. Since the blocks are covalently bonded to each other, they cannot demix macroscopically like water and oil. In "microphase separation," the blocks form <a href="Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometer</a>-sized structures. Depending on the relative lengths of each block, several morphologies can be obtained. In diblock copolymers, sufficiently different block lengths lead to nanometer-sized spheres of one block in a matrix of the second (e.g., <a href="Polymethyl_methacrylate" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymethyl methacrylate">PMMA</a> in polystyrene). Using less different block lengths, a "hexagonally packed cylinder" geometry can be obtained. Blocks of similar length form layers (often called <a href="Lamella_(materials)" title="Lamella (materials)">lamellae</a> in the technical literature). Between the cylindrical and lamellar phase is the <a href="Gyroid" title="Gyroid">gyroid</a> phase. The nanoscale structures created from block copolymers can potentially be used to create devices for computer <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a>, nanoscale-templating, and nanoscale separations.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Block copolymers are sometimes used as a replacement for phospholipids in <a href="Model_lipid_bilayer" title="Model lipid bilayer">model lipid bilayers</a> and <a href="Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a> for their superior stability and tunability.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Polymer scientists use <a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> to describe how the different blocks interact.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The product of the degree of polymerization, <i>n</i>, and the Flory-Huggins <a href="Interaction_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Interaction parameter">interaction parameter</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./656111758322ace96d80a9371771aa6d3de25437.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.455ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi }" loading="lazy"></span>, gives an indication of how incompatible the two blocks are and whether they will microphase separate. For example, a diblock copolymer of symmetric composition will microphase separate if the product <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi N}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mi>N</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi N}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./0f87e6a1e1a64563c4dc5a26c8cc5ace681974c4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.519ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi N}" loading="lazy"></span> is greater than 10.5. If <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \chi N}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>χ<!-- χ --></mi>
<mi>N</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \chi N}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./0f87e6a1e1a64563c4dc5a26c8cc5ace681974c4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.519ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \chi N}" loading="lazy"></span> is less than 10.5, the blocks will mix and microphase separation is not observed. The incompatibility between the blocks also affects the solution behavior of these copolymers and their adsorption behavior on various surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Block copolymers are able to self-assemble in selective solvents to form micelles among other structures.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In thin films, block copolymers are of great interest as masks in the lithographic patterning of semiconductor materials for applications in high density data storage. A key challenge is to minimise the feature size and much research is in progress on this.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characterization">Characterization</h2></div>
<p><a href="Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a> techniques for copolymers are similar to those for other polymeric materials. These techniques can be used to determine the average <a href="Molecular_mass" title="Molecular mass">molecular weight</a>, molecular size, chemical composition, molecular <a href="Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity" title="Homogeneity and heterogeneity">homogeneity</a>, and physiochemical properties of the material.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, given that copolymers are made of base polymer components with heterogeneous properties, this may require multiple characterization techniques to accurately characterize these copolymers.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Spectroscopic techniques, such as <a href="Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy</a>, <a href="Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">infrared spectroscopy</a>, and <a href="Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV spectroscopy</a>, are often used to identify the molecular structure and chemical composition of copolymers. In particular, NMR can indicate the <a href="Tacticity" title="Tacticity">tacticity</a> and configuration of polymeric chains while IR can identify functional groups attached to the copolymer.
</p><p>Scattering techniques, such as <a href="Static_light_scattering" title="Static light scattering">static light scattering</a>, <a href="Dynamic_light_scattering" title="Dynamic light scattering">dynamic light scattering</a>, and <a href="Small-angle_neutron_scattering" title="Small-angle neutron scattering">small-angle neutron scattering</a>, can determine the molecular size and weight of the synthesized copolymer. Static light scattering and dynamic light scattering use light to determine the average molecular weight and behavior of the copolymer in solution whereas small-angle neutron scattering uses neutrons to determine the molecular weight and chain length. Additionally, x-ray scattering techniques, such as <a href="Small-angle_X-ray_scattering" title="Small-angle X-ray scattering">small-angle X-ray scattering</a> (SAXS) can help determine the nanometer morphology and characteristic feature size of a microphase-separated block-copolymer or suspended micelles. <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Differential_scanning_calorimetry" title="Differential scanning calorimetry">Differential scanning calorimetry</a> is a thermoanalytical technique used to determine the thermal events of the copolymer as a function of temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can indicate when the copolymer is undergoing a <a href="Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a>, such as crystallization or melting, by measuring the heat flow required to maintain the material and a reference at a constantly increasing temperature.
</p><p><a href="Thermogravimetric_analysis" title="Thermogravimetric analysis">Thermogravimetric analysis</a> is another thermoanalytical technique used to access the thermal stability of the copolymer as a function of temperature. This provides information on any changes to the physicochemical properties, such as phase transitions, thermal decompositions, and redox reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Size-exclusion_chromatography" title="Size-exclusion chromatography">Size-exclusion chromatography</a> can separate copolymers with different molecular weights based on their hydrodynamic volume.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From there, the molecular weight can be determined by deriving the relationship from its hydrodynamic volume. Larger copolymers tend to elute first as they do not interact with the column as much. The collected material is commonly detected by light scattering methods, a refractometer, or a viscometer to determine the concentration of the eluted copolymer.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Block_copolymers_2">Block copolymers</h3></div>
<p>A common application of block copolymers is to develop <a href="Thermoplastic_elastomer" title="Thermoplastic elastomer">thermoplastic elastomers</a> (TPEs).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early commercial TPEs were developed from <a href="Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethranes</a> (TPUs), consisting of alternating soft segments and hard segments, and are used in automotive bumpers and snowmobile treads.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Styrenic TPEs entered the market later, and are used in footwear, bitumen modification, thermoplastic blending, adhesives, and cable insulation and gaskets.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modifying the linkages between the blocks resulted in newer TPEs based on <a href="Polyester" title="Polyester">polyesters</a> (TPES) and <a href="Polyamide" title="Polyamide">polyamides</a> (TPAs), used in hose tubing, sport goods, and automotive components.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="Amphiphile" title="Amphiphile">Amphiphilic</a> block copolymers have the ability to form <a href="Micelle" title="Micelle">micelles</a> and <a href="Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to this property, amphiphilic block copolymers have garnered much attention in research on vehicles for drug delivery.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, amphiphilic block copolymers can be used for the removal of organic contaminants from water either through micelle formation<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or film preparation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternating_copolymers_2">Alternating copolymers</h3></div>
<p>The styrene-maleic acid (SMA) alternating copolymer displays amphiphilicity depending on pH, allowing it to change conformations in different environments.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some conformations that SMA can take are random coil formation, compact globular formation, micelles, and nanodiscs.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SMA has been used as a <a href="Dispersing_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Dispersing agent">dispersing agent</a> for dyes and inks, as drug delivery vehicles, and for membrane solubilization.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copolymer_engineering">Copolymer engineering</h3></div>
<p>Copolymerization is used to modify the properties of manufactured plastics to meet specific needs, for example to reduce crystallinity, modify <a href="Glass_transition_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass transition temperature">glass transition temperature</a>, control wetting properties or to improve solubility.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a way of improving mechanical properties, in a technique known as <a href="Rubber_toughening" title="Rubber toughening">rubber toughening</a>. Elastomeric phases within a rigid matrix act as crack arrestors, and so increase the energy absorption when the material is impacted for example. <a href="Acrylonitrile_butadiene_styrene" title="Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene">Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene</a> is a common example.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Polymer#Monomer_arrangement_in_copolymers" title="Polymer">Copolymers section of Polymer article</a></li>
<li><a href="Thermoplastic_elastomer" title="Thermoplastic elastomer">Thermoplastic elastomer</a></li>
<li><a href="Tholin" title="Tholin">Tholin</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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